Post Traumatic Stress Disorder :: Post-traumatic stress disorder, PTSD

Introduction There has been a proliferation of interest in the development and nature of individual’s thinking patterns and processes following traumatic psychological exposure (Ehlers, Mayou, & Bryant, 1998). In particular, previous research has suggested that specific thinking styles and patterns preceding trauma predict a greater vulnerability and a poorer long-term prognosis of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) (Dalgleish, 2004). Moreover, the literature has illustrated that adolescents can be predisposed to developing PTSD which develops as a result of either direct or indirect exposure to a trauma. For example, witnessing a trauma directly or learning about a specific traumatic event experienced by others (Finkelhor & Dziuba-Leatherman, 1994). Previous research has highlighted that adolescents that have been exposed to a trauma and PTSD may also be more vulnerable to developing aggressive and antisocial behaviours (Falshaw, Browne & Hollin, 1996), alcohol and drug dependence, hypervigilance and impulsive misconduct (Lynam, Caspi, Moffitt, Wikstrà ¶m, Loeber & Novak, 2000). Erwin, Newman, McMackin, Morrissey and Kaloupek (2000) suggest that a reason for this is that early exposure to trauma can have severe impact on adolescent’s functioning in terms of their emotions, cognition and behaviour, poor self-regulation and information-processing. Adding to this, Tyson & Goodman, (1996) suggest that it is these deficits in functioning coupled with the individual’s inability to regulate emotions that predispose them to engaging in protective aggression and dangerous re-enactment behaviours as a way of dealing with their exposure to trauma. The link between dysfunctional cognitions and PTSD has been widely explored by various researchers, and it has been suggested that a tight relationship exists between PTSD and antisocial behaviour in youths (Danckwerts & Leathem, 2003). However, little is yet known about the psychological mechanisms which underlie the relationship. This literature review will explore the underlying mechanisms which predict a greater vulnerability to the onset, development and maintenance of PTSD associated with young offenders. More specifically, depressive cognitions such as rumination and counterfactual thinking will be explored with reference to their link with PTSD. Defining Rumination and Counterfactual Thinking Individuals affected by PTSD often report symptoms of incessant ruminative thinking associated with a traumatic experience. The DSM-IV (American Psychiatric Association, 1994) does not however distinguish intrusive rumination and intrusive memories associated with the trauma in the development of PTSD. However, more recently various theoretical perspectives propose that the two are functionally distinct and should be regarded as separate entities (Ehlers & Clark, 2000; Joseph, Williams & Yule, 1997; Ehlers & Steil, 1997).

Evidence Based Practice Essay

This question reminded me about the famous and probably one of the most important inventors in the world, Thomas Edison. When he was trying to create his filament for his light bulb, it took him more than a thousand tries to do so. Likewise in a hospital, all the procedures and treatments that nurses do while on the job has been practiced and experimented on so the patient can receive first-class quality care from the nurses. Evidence-based nursing is a process founded on the collection, interpretation, and integration of valid, important, and applicable research. An example of this can be when a new technique or procedure has been discovered to help cure new diseases. After extensive amounts of research, the technique will be experimented on. They will perform the new technique on patients to see if the patients feel better, and like the procedure done to them. Evidence-based practice will help you explore the process of making solid clinical decisions that you must make in the hospital. New problems will arise daily, and with evidence-based practice, you are able to solve those problems in a systematic way. I believe that to do evidence-based practice needs to be done with a group or a team. Efficiency and accuracy is needed when doing evidence-based practice because in the end, the patients are the ones that need to be satisfied with the care that they are receiving. An example of the evidence based practice is as a chemo nurse, patients admitted for chemotherapy are offered pre-treatment assessment and physical and emotional support. Also, we provide a low-stress setting that helps patients and families to receive fully absorb the information and educate themselves about their disease and its treatments. As an effect to evidence-based nursing, we can now be more confident about the procedures that we do on our patients, because they have been thoroughly checked over.

William Shakespeare s Romeo And Juliet - 887 Words

Many famous characters made their way into William Shakespeare s Romeo and Juliet is a clever way. The most influential and important literary device in William Shakespeare s Romeo and Juliet is allusion, Shakespeare uses it to bring the reader into the story and help them to make connections to other things, to give the reader something in mythology or scripture to help the them better understand the situation, to make the reader feel a connection with the play, and to add in interesting aspects into the play to keep the reader thinking and always aware. Shakespeare uses allusion to invite the reader to make connections, to other things. While Romeo expresses his feelings to Benvolio about Rosaline, he extremely exasperated sighs, â€Å"She hath Dian’s wit (1.1.202). Romeo explains to Benvolio why he struggles with Rosaline, he would like to be intimate with her, but she does not feel the same way. Romeo compares Rosaline to Diana, the goddess of chastity, because she will n ot be with him. This allusion happens to be an example of classical allusion. Shakespeare uses this to help the reader to make a connection between a well-known character, Diana, and the character in the play, Rosaline. Shakespeare, allowing the reader to make this connection between these two characters, helps them understand the situation at hand and comprehend what was going on. Allusion, helps the reader make connections within the play, helps the reader feel a connection, be connected to the play,Show MoreRelatedWilliam Shakespeare s Romeo And Juliet1287 Words   |  6 PagesLizzy Baginski English Composition 2 Mr. Spera March 10, 2015 Romeo and Juliet Research Paper The movie Romeo and Juliet is a modern classic film that took place in 1996. Overall this is a timeless story that everyone should go and watch. This movie has an intriguing plot line that tells the story of two feuding families, The Montagues and The Capulets, and how the children of these two different families fall in love. The two children overcome various obstacles such as hiding their chemistry fromRead MoreWilliam Shakespeare s Romeo And Juliet 966 Words   |  4 Pages Beauty Over Gold â€Å"Beauty provoketh thieves sooner than gold.--William Shakespeare, 1623. In his book As You Like It, William Shakespeare pointed out the supremacy of love rather than the want of gold and wealth. Truly, beauty is more important to thieves than wealth. Many of the thieves in this world would rather have an elegant woman than to obtain precious rubies. After all, what good is a prosperous man if he doesn’t have a charming woman? Two famous men grab my attention who didn’t fear forRead MoreWilliam Shakespeare s Romeo And Juliet Essay1024 Words   |  5 PagesRomeo and Juliet is a tragedy written by William Shakespeare early in his career about two young star-crossed lovers whose deaths ultimately reconcile their feuding families. It was among Shakespeare s most popular plays during his lifetime and, along with Hamlet, is one of his most frequently performed plays. Today, the title characters are regarded as archetypal young lovers. Romeo and Juliet belongs to a tradition of tragic romances stretching back to antiquity. The plot is based on an ItalianRead MoreWilliam Shakespeare s Romeo And Juliet1124 Words   |  5 PagesThe play Romeo and Juliet is a tragedy written by William Shakespeare early in his career about two young star-crossed lovers whose deaths ultimately reconcile their feuding families. It was among Shakespeare s most popular plays during his lifetime and, along with Hamlet, is one of his most frequently performed plays. Today, the title characters are regarded as archetypal young lovers. Romeo and Juliet belongs to a tradition of tragic romances stretching back to antiquity. Its plot is based onRead MoreWilliam Shakespeare s Romeo And Juliet861 Words   |  4 Pagesgreatly shown in the play Romeo and Juliet by William Shakespeare. It was love at first sight with Romeo Montague and Juliet Capulet. Meeting at a party and falling in love to get married without even spending quality time with each other. Romeo and Juliet couldn t tell there parents because the Capulets and Montagues are long term rivals. Both Romeo and Juliet had to find different ways and excuses to make this marriage work. A big problem was developed. Romeo kills Juliet s cousin and is banishedRead MoreWilliam Shakespeare s Romeo And Juliet1770 Words   |  8 Pagesof Romeo and Juliet. The story of two destined lovers who were killed by their own doing. But what if they weren t two destined lovers who got unlucky, but doomed partners that were never going to have a good-life to begin with.William Sha kespeare gives us a view of early signs of gang conflict in the early age of Verona, Italy. He gives us a perspective of the norms and customs of Italy during the Setting of William Shakespeare s most famous story. Romeo and Juliet, by William Shakespeare, givesRead MoreWilliam Shakespeare s Romeo And Juliet1616 Words   |  7 Pageslove can also cause some of life s most controversial battles. These battles could stem from lack of patience, disagreement of moral values, and in some cases, an absence of attraction overall. In Romeo and Juliet by William Shakespeare, the issues that drive Romeo Montague and Juliet Capulet s to each of their dreadful misfortunes are inevitable. When it comes to many of Shakespeare s plays, Aristotle s theory is used to describe them as tragedies. Romeo and Juliet is known by many as a tragedyRead MoreWilliam Shakespeare s Romeo And Juliet1264 Words   |  6 Pagestheater-going public the most important dramatist in English literature, Shakespeare oc cupies a well-known position in the world of talented authors. His canon contains thirty-seven plays, written in the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries. Additionally, throughout the years, they continue to sustain critical attention, with the majority of his works circling tragedies, one being Romeo and Juliet. William Shakespeare s Romeo and Juliet speaks to the timeless appeal of star-crossed lovers. Their loveRead MoreWilliam Shakespeare s Romeo And Juliet924 Words   |  4 PagesWilliam Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet is a tragedy that follows the so-called love of two teenagers. The two fall in love at a masked ball and have a secret marriage. Throughout the play, their actions show how ridiculous love is, and how it is a danger to anyone who become twisted in its choking grasp. However, in the death of the youth and survival of the elders, an alternative explanation for the tragic events may be found. Although Shakespeare seems to be mocking love throughout the play, itRead MoreWilliam Shakespeare s Romeo And Juliet1279 Words   |  6 Pagesour lives. The great, classic writers teach timeless, valuable life skills. Shakespeare was the greatest writer of all time. His writings mainly consisted of dramas and sonnets. Romeo and Juliet, as well as, A MIdsummer Night’s Dream were written about the same time period. He was able to inter relate everything that wrote. For example, the tale of Pyramus and Thisbe could possibly be an advertisement for Romeo and Juliet. The basic structure of the two dramas is the same; two forbidden lovers meet

Fear in The Fall of the House of Usher by Edgar Allan Poe...

Fear in The Fall of the House of Usher by Edgar Allan Poe Edgar Allan Poe used fear to attract his readers into his gothic world. Poe realized that fear intrigues as well as frightens, and sew it as a perfect motif for many of his stories, particularly The Fall of the House of Usher. Poe emphasized the mysterious, desolate, and gloomy surroundings throughout the story to set up the fear that got the reader involved. Then he extended the fear to the characters in order to reveal the importance of facing and overcoming fear. Poe suggested in the story that the denial of fears can lead to madness and insanity. This has clearly shown through the weakening of Roderick Ushers mind and the resulting impact on the narrator of the story.†¦show more content†¦It was the constant presence of fear that had caused his illness. Roderick did not know how, or rather was unwilling to try to overcome his fears. One of Rodericks fears was death. He was from a well-known and honored fami ly, and he and his sister were the last of the long line of Usher descendants. His sister, Madeline, had been fighting a severe and long-continued illness for quite some time, which had added to much of Rodericks gloom. Her decease, would leave him the last of the ancient race of the Ushers. Roderick seemed not only to fear the death of his sister and ultimately of himself, but also the uncertainty of the future. I dread the events of the future, not only in themselves, but in their results. I shudder at the thought of any, even the most trivial incident, which may operate upon this intolerable agitation of soul. The narrator of the story stated that Rodericks fear might have been linked directly to the house. He explained how he is enchanted by certain superstitious impressions in regard to the dwelling which he tenanted, and whence, for many years, he had never ventured forth. Roderick explained his feeling that he was stuck in the house and that horrible things would happ en to him if he left. The narrator implied that Rodericks mental condition might have been relieved if he would leave the house and face his fears. However, because ofShow MoreRelatedThe Depiction of Fear in The Fall of the House of Usher by Edgar Allan Poe2167 Words   |  9 PagesThe Depiction of Fear in The Fall of the House of Usher by Edgar Allan Poe As Edgar Allan Poe wrote, The Fall of the House of Usher, he uses characterization, and imagery to depict fear, terror, and darkness on the human mind. Plot: Roderick and his twin sister Madeline are the last of the all time-honored House of Usher. They are both suffering from rather strange illnesses which may be attributed to the intermarriage of the family. Roderick suffers from a morbid acuteness of theRead MoreEdgar Allan Poes Fear of Self1286 Words   |  6 PagesEdgar A. Poe s Fear of Self Edgar Allan Poe was a unique man that most people could not understand. Many recognize that he is a talented writer with a very strange and dark style. One of his most well known short stories is The Fall Of The House Of Usher. Many argue the different meanings of this story and how it is symbolic to his life. Poe was a very confused individual who needed to express him self, he accomplished this through the short story of The Fall Of The House Of Usher. ThroughRead MoreAnalysis Of Poe s The Falls Of The House Of Usher 1391 Words   |  6 PagesI studied the writings of Poe in 7th grade. We studied a series of his short stories and what intrigued me about his work, is how dark and somber are his stories. After reading an Edgar Allan Poe literature, it lingers in the back of your mind for days and sometimes longer. I think his stories help me to understand some of my own feelings at that time when I was young. I had lost my grandfather, whom I was so close too and loved very mu ch. When he became ill, I prayed so hard, but he passed awayRead More Edgar Allan Poe Exposed in The Fall Of The House Of Usher Essay1283 Words   |  6 PagesEdgar Allan Poe Exposed in â€Å"The Fall Of The House Of Usher† Edgar Allan Poe was a unique man that most people could not understand. Many recognize that he is a talented writer with a very strange and dark style. One of his most well known short stories is â€Å"The Fall Of The House Of Usher.† Many argue the different meanings of this story and how it is symbolic to his life. Poe was a very confused individual who needed to express himself, he accomplished this through the short story of â€Å"The FallRead MoreThe Fall Of The House Of Usher1243 Words   |  5 Pagesâ€Å"The Fall Of The House Of Usher:† The Mysterious Family In the story â€Å" The Fall of the House of Usher† by Edgar Allan Poe, has an American romanticism with its characters. Edgar Allan Poe is considered a Dark Romanticism because of the way he writes his poems and short stories centered around the concept of evil human nature, darkness, and death. Roderick and Madeline Usher were said to be related during the middle of the story; they were twins. It explained how they were sick, Roderick had a mentalRead MoreThe Fall Of The House Of Usher1133 Words   |  5 Pagesthe story â€Å" The Fall of the House of Usher† by Edgar Allan Poe, has american romanticism with the characters. Edgar Allan Poe is considered a Dark Romanticism because of his poems and short stories centered around the ideas of evil human nature, darkness, and death. Roderick Usher and Madeline were that kind of person in this story; they were twins. There were sick; Roderick had mental disorder and physically and Madeline was physically sick. As the narra tor enters the desolate house, he finds bothRead More Madness and Fear in Assignation, Cask of Admontillado, Fall of the House of Usher, and Masque of th1589 Words   |  7 PagesMadness and Fear in Assignation, Cask of Admontillado, Fall of the House of Usher, and Masque of the Red Death Poe’s madmen are all obsessed with death. Existence within reality eventually becomes impossible. Poe usually places his madmen within a room or other enclosure, but they are rarely ever outside. When we do come across an exterior, nature does its best to repress, confine and enclose the man. The protagonist in Poe’s â€Å"The Assignation† sums up the combination of time and space withinRead MoreThe Fall of the House of Usher1239 Words   |  5 Pages At the moment, all was silent and not even a squeak could be heard. But if a house collapsed in the middle of a forest, and no one was around to hear it, did it make a sound? With such wonders, death, and darkness also come the work of Edgar Allan Poe. Edgar Allan Poe is known as a literature legend. He wrote many complicated horror and detective fiction stories, which also represents the artsy twentieth century (â€Å"Poe† 1316). Many of his works are poems and short stories. As for his life, it startedRead MoreThe Fall of the House of Usher, by Edgar Allan Poe Essay798 Words   |  4 Pagesto control, if it can be controlled at all. In The Fall of the House of Usher, Edgar Allan Poe uses imagination as a key tool to make the story come to life. The human imagination is portrayed as a wild and uncontrollable being. This can be shown throughout the story by loss of control of his mental state by Roderick Usher, and by the narrator’s belief that he too is being infected by the house’s tormenting nature. I believe that Edgar Allan Poe personifies the mental concept of the imaginationRead MoreA Critical Analysis of The Fall of the House of Usher Essay914 Words   |  4 Pagesof The Fall of the House of Usher There are three significant characters in this story: the narrator, whose name is never given, Roderick and Madeline Usher. The narrator is a boyhood friend of Roderick Usher. He has not seen Roderick since they were children; however, because of an urgent letter that the narrator has received from Roderick which was requesting his assistance in alleviating his malady, the narrator makes the long journey to the House of Usher.

How to Prevent Cancer Essay - 772 Words

Cancer Prevention 1. Introduction There are many people in the world that are afraid of getting sick. People fear in developing fatal sickness in their lifetime. Cancer-the big C—will often top the list. Brody,H.(2011). Cancer Prevetion.Nature,471(7339). Patients that have been diagnosed with cancer and are using treatments such as radiation, chemotherapy and surgery have already had their cancer progressed. In order to avoid such conditions, people need to be pro active and often check themselves. In order to prevent and develop cancer it is recommended by cancer specialists to follow up with medical visits every so often. Although both male and female have potential of acquiring cancer. There are multiple ways one can prevent cancer†¦show more content†¦Low income, no access to medical services, and lack of poor communication with the public are reasons why people aren’t aware of cancer precautions. The question to be researched is how is the familiar is the public with strategies of cancer screening prevention? We are going to look at gender, socio economic status, and education. General screening guidelines suggested that women start screening for cancer at different ages depending on the case of cancer. Majority of women are not aware what age they should start to screen for cancer. Women without access of medical facilities due to lack of health care insurance, transportation and social barriers are more likely less than to get screened for cancers. People that do not have access to medical facilities would not be able to communicate regarding their health. Many women starting ages from 18 fail to get screened for cancer. According to the Health Information National Trends Survey (HINTS) analyzed interviews with 5,589 adults in 2003, and most respondents were able to cite at least one or two prevention strategies for reducing their chances of acquiring cancer. The lowest numbers of strategies were presented by Hispanics that were 65 years or older and those with lowest income and education. People who cited the important strategies on reducing cancer are those who practice them. Those individuals proposed that healthy eating habits, exercising regularly, participating in cancer screening andShow MoreRelatedDNA Replicaiton Cause Cancer Essay1541 Words   |  7 PagesCause Cancer I. Introduction As known today, cancer is one of the most lethal diseases in the world. Millions of people died every year caused by various type of cancer, but the concern is that what does really caused the cancer itself? Is it because of the lifestyle people have nowadays? Or because of environment that has changed? Or even sometimes because of the flaw in the replication of DNA? There are lots of probabilities to cause cancer. In this section, we will discuss about how does DNARead MoreEssay about Skin Cancer in Relation to the Ottawa Charter1339 Words   |  6 PagesSKIN CANCER Cancer is the second largest cause of death in Australia and accounts for approximately 27% of all deaths. Risk factors generally include exposure to sun, poor diet and smoking. Many types of cancer such as skin cancer, lung cancer and breast cancer are easily preventable by early detection and awareness; however, some cancers cannot be prevented. The National Skin Cancer Awareness Program represents the new public health approach. This is because it has been created to prevent andRead MoreSunscreen Hurting Vs. Helping1470 Words   |  6 Pagessunscreen to prevent a sunburn, you could actually be causing something much more harmful? Sunscreen has been around since 1928 in order to prevent the harsh ultraviolet-rays from the sun burning our skin and thus preventing skin cancer. In contrast, studies have shown that sunscreen has caused many people to contract skin cancer due to harsh chemicals added into the products. Sunscreen also prevents your body from absorbing Vitamin D. Mercola, the world s #1 natural health website discusses how Dr. WilliamRead MoreSunscreen And Its Effects On The Body1466 Words   |  6 Pagessunscreen to prevent a sunburn, you could actually be causing something much more harmful? Sunscreen has been around since 1928 in order to prevent the harsh ultraviolet-rays from the sun burning our skin and t hus preventing skin cancer. In contrast, studies have shown that sunscreen has caused many people to contract skin cancer due to harsh chemicals added into the products. Sunscreen also prevents your body from absorbing Vitamin D. Mercola, the world s #1 natural health website discusses how Dr. WilliamRead MoreBreast Cancer : Cancer And Cancer1714 Words   |  7 PagesBreast Cancer The twentieth century has often been called and known as the cancer century. The reason being is that throughout the century, there have been more than a hundred types of cancer discovered across the world. In addition to the discovery of these many cancers, there has been an enormous medical effort to fight all kinds of cancer across the world. In the early decades of the century, cancer was considered to be a fatal disease, resulting in a high number of deaths. Although manyRead MorePrevention Persuasive Essay : Cancer Prevention941 Words   |  4 PagesBiology B Cancer Prevention Persuasive Essay Everyday, an abundance of people ask what they can do to prevent themselves from especially getting cancer. Cancer, very similar to the steps of mitosis, occurs when cells divide uncontrollably. It starts by how a cell or a group of cells doesn’t follow the body’s typical growth controls. Cancer is hard to detect in the early stages due to the fact that it produces very few symptoms. Many rumors go around about what you can do to reduce cancer, but whatRead MoreCauses And Risk Of Breast Cancer1026 Words   |  5 PagesCauses risk of breast cancer Breast cancer is a disorder that mostly happens to women, as for men it is very rare. BRCA1 and BRCA2 work as DNA but when they are not replaced correctly it can lead to cancer. When BRCA1 and BRCA2 is mutated, or altered , such that its protein produced either is not made or doesn’t function correctly, DNA damage might no be repaired properly. When you have breast cancer you can also be at risk of lots of other cancers. The process of BRCA1 and BRCA2 usually happensRead MoreAmerican Cancer Society : A Community Based Health Organization1517 Words   |  7 PagesAmerican Cancer Society The American Cancer Society is a nationwide, community-based health organization. It was founded as the American Society for the Control of Cancer in 1913 by ten doctors and five people led by Dr. Clement Cleveland in efforts to take the steps to prevent cancer (Eyre). In 1936, Marjorie Illig, a field representative and leader of a women’s public-health committee, suggested the group â€Å"wage a war on cancer.† The Women’s Field Army at this time raised money for the group andRead MoreOverview of Breast Cancer Essay1015 Words   |  5 PagesIf you or a loved one were diagnosed with breast cancer, how would you feel? You would probably feel very afraid and worried. Breast cancer is a common and potentially deadly form of cancer that affects both men and women. There are risk factors for getting the disease and there are different types of treatment for people who have been diagnosed with the disease. There are also steps that people can take to try to preve nt getting breast cancer or at least catch it early. Luckily there are manyRead MoreThe Human Papillomavirus ( Hpv )1195 Words   |  5 PagesAmerica today. With infection rates only increasing every year, it is important to know how HPV can be prevented and treated. In this paper, there is a brief overview of how HPV replicates and what happens when the cell is infected. It will also look at methods to preventing HPV infection such as vaccines, safe sex and abstinence as well as ways to treat HPV when prevention fails including wart removal and cancer treatments. This paper will also discusses some of the signs and symptoms if any, that

Examine The Sociological Views Free Essays

There have been many changes in society that have affected children over the last 50 years, however there are several different sociological views on whether these changes have been beneficial to children or not. Functionalist sociologists have the ‘march of progress’ view, as they believe that the experience of childhood has massively improved over the last 50 years. They believe that society is more child-centred today than ever before. We will write a custom essay sample on Examine The Sociological Views or any similar topic only for you Order Now The introduction of contraception has led to couples having smaller families, therefore meaning that children now tend to receive more attention from their parents. Similarly, parents are also able to care for their children better due to the introduction of the welfare state and child benefits. Climbie’s case and ‘Every Child Matters’ has led to the improvement of social services and child protection, meaning childhood is much safer now than it was 50 years ago. Children are also in better health due to the NHS, meaning more children survive childhood now than ever before. All children can now receive state education up until the age of 18, meaning they are better educated and can achieve much higher in adulthood, whilst experiencing a longer period of youth. All of these changes have improved the experience of childhood and cause Functionalists to believe that things are getting better. However, Marxist and Feminist sociologists disagree, claiming that the march of progress view is too positive. They believe that a child’s experience of childhood depends on their class, ethnicity and gender, and that Functionalists overlook the inequalities between these factors. This is called the ‘conflict’ view. Class has an effect on childhood as generally if a family is poor, the children are more likely to have a poor upbringing. Ethnicity is found to have an effect as Asian parents have been found to be much stricter on their kids. How to cite Examine The Sociological Views, Papers

Alcoholism Disease or Choice free essay sample

Both sides of the debate are discussed in this paper and it is my conclusion that there is strong evidence that suggests that alcoholism is a disease that needs treatment. Alcoholism is a choice Fingarette (1988) discredits the notion that alcoholism is a disease. He explains that alcoholism begins with a choice to drink alcohol which subsequently leads to uncontrollable consumption. In his book, the author explains that heavy drinking or alcoholism is a lifestyle. Advertisements on the media depict alcoholism as an attractive way of life, meaning those who choose to indulge in alcohol are simply making a choice. Alcoholism is defined as a disease in order to excuse some errant behaviors. It is contended that alcoholics can indeed control their consumption of alcohol. The author emphasizes that in most alcoholism treatment facilities, it is a requirement for one to stay sober for a while before being admitted. According to him this means that an alcoholic is able to control his or her drinking. Fingarette (1988) also argues that there are many symptoms of alcoholism to qualify it as a disease on its own. Some have also argued that relapse of recovering alcoholics illustrates that alcoholism is a choice. This is because some of the alcoholics who undergo rehabilitation choose to go back to their drinking habits. This has been compared in the same way that some people choose to take heroin or cocaine and later become addicted (Schaler 1991). Critics of the notion of alcoholism as a disease have argued that treating alcoholism as a disease is equivalent to comparing it to a disease like cancer. It is argued that while in the case of cancer one cannot prevent or control the cancer, one can prevent and control alcoholism. This is because one cannot become an alcoholic if they do not take alcohol in the first place. Some addicts have also claimed that they could stop taking alcohol if they wanted to. Therefore, it has been asserted that alcoholism is a volitional act. Baldwin Research Institute (2003) asserts that the average person, who is diagnosed with a drug related addiction, will on their own stop the addiction 20 to 30% of the time. This means that the loss of control concept does not apply. According to critics alcoholics who believe that alcoholism is a disease have lesser chances of achieving sobriety, due to the idea that they have no control. Mello and Mendelson (1972) conducted a study where a group of people were given unlimited access to a huge amount of alcohol. It was observed that none of the people tried to drink all the alcohol at once. This was to show that they could actually control the amount of alcohol they consumed. In this study it was concluded that the notion that once consumption of alcohol begins it proceeds independently and cannot be controlled, is incorrect and misinformed. It was also concluded that alcoholism is a psychological as opposed to a physiological uncontrollable force. This is because the manner in which alcoholics take alcohol is related to their beliefs about drinking. Most alcoholics think that alcohol will solve their problems, thus many are heard saying that they are ‘drowning’ their sorrows with alcohol. Psychotherapeutic thoughts have also confirmed that most alcoholics have underlying problems that they try to forget or avoid by overindulging in alcohol. This therefore means that alcoholism is a choice. It has also been argued that alcoholism is a choice and not a disease ecause there are laws against drunken driving and other drug related offences. This means that there is no way one could be arrested for an illness, thus disqualifying alcoholism as a disease. The law puts in place sanctions against alcoholism in order to control behavior that is caused by the wrong choice, not because of a disease. Schaler (1991) contends that one should argue that alcoholics need support and education about the effects of alcoholism and how to curb the habit. It is suggested that the notion of treatment for alcoholism is misinformed. Alcoholism is a Disease The concept of alcoholism as a disease originated in the 19th century with Dr. Benjamin Rush. This doctor advanced radical ideas claiming that those who overindulged in alcohol had a disease. However he was mostly discredited because of his assertions that being black and political dissentions were also to be regarded as diseases. Before 1891 the word alcoholic had not been used to refer to a person who took alcohol uncontrollably. Drunkenness was however not acceptable in this era. Since the 19th century it has been widely accepted that alcoholism is a disease and it requires compassion and treatment just like any other disease. Room (1983) stipulates that in 1951, the World Health Organization identified alcoholism as a disease and this was also done in 1956 by the American Medical Association. Sociologists have advanced various theories on why alcoholism should be treated as a sickness. Room (1983) suggested that there should be five criteria to determine what should be considered as a disease. It is stated that describing a set of facts as a disease requires that the facts have enough in common to be classified as a single entity and that the facts together should be referred to as a condition and not an event. It is also stipulated that for a set of facts to be labeled as a disease they ought to characterize departure from normal behavior, they should also be located in an individual and they should not occur out of the free will of that individual. Following this criteria, it would be logical to conclude that alcoholism is a disease. This is because it meets these criteria. It has been stated by proponents of the notion of alcoholism as a sickness, that the main factor to determine whether alcoholism is a sickness or not, is the issue of loss of control. Alcoholism’s main symptom is the loss of control. An alcoholic cannot control the amount of alcohol he or she consumes. This is also a major characteristic of any disease. This is because a sick person has no control over his or her disease. Alcoholic employees are also protected under the Americans with Disabilities Act and the Rehabilitation Act. These pieces of legislation consider alcoholism a disability. This also shows that the law recognizes alcoholism as being beyond the alcoholic’s control and thus a disease. In some legal circles genetic predisposition to alcoholism has also been regarded as a defense. Alcoholism should be viewed as a disease because it leads to deterioration of health and even death. The US Department of Health and Human Services (2000) reported that by the year 2000 there were 20,687 deaths related to alcohol. Because of being perceived as a disease, there are pharmacological treatments that have been devised for dealing with alcoholism. Drugs that affect the cortic-mesolimbic dopamine system have been suggested to modify drinking behavior. Medical practitioners suggest that there are subtypes of alcoholism and each has its own treatment. It is stipulated that alcoholism can be divided into the early-onset type, which is chronic and associated with genetic predisposition and a late-onset type, which is characterised by psychological disorders. This shows that just like any other disease, alcoholism is progressive; it has early and late stages. Alcoholism can also be described as an illness due to the treatment sought in rehabilitation facilities and in Alcoholics Anonymous groups. In rehabilitation facilities those who suffer from alcoholism undergo a great amount of pain when they withdraw from the alcohol. The withdrawal symptoms are characterised by vomiting, headaches and severe symptoms include seizures. These recovery symptoms are also experienced in other diseases like cancer, where chemotherapy treatment is rigorous and excruciatingly painful. Conclusion Alcoholism is an issue that continues to draw both moralistic and sympathetic debates. Alcoholics form part of the society and it is important to address their plight because failure to do this could lead to a serious problem in future. It has been noted that alcohol is introduced to young children as early as the age of thirteen years and by the time these children become adults, they are already addicted. The solution is however not to point judging fingers towards the alcoholics. The solution lies in acknowledging the problem as a disease, so as to encourage those suffering from it to seek treatment. Taking alcohol for the first time is a choice that an individual makes, but addiction to alcohol is not a choice. It is a disease that sees the victim lose control of his alcohol consumption as well as his or her life. Many alcoholics do not recognize their problem in the beginning and for a long time they remain in denial. This is also witnessed when some people are given a diagnosis of a terminal illness; most go into denial before eventually coming into terms with the disease. Relapsing of alcoholics can also not be used to depict that alcoholism is a choice. This can also be said to be a characteristic that alcoholism is an infirmity. This is because many chronic diseases especially cancer, see patients relapse. It is not any different for alcoholics. It can therefore be surmised that alcoholism is a disease that needs to be seriously addressed before many more lives are lost due to alcohol-related problems. References Baldwin Research Institute (2003). Alcoholism: A Disease of Speculation. Retrieved from http://www. baldwinresearch. com/alcoholism. cfm. Fingarette, H. (1988). Heavy Drinking: The Myth of Alcoholism as a Disease.